A dataset of multi-tagged sea surface roughness synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite images was established near Barbados from January to June 2016 to 2019. It is an advancement of the Sentinel-1 Wave Mode TenGeoP-SARwv (a labelled SAR imagery dataset of 10 geophysical phenomena from Sentinel-1 wave mode) dataset that targets SAR marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) coherent structures. Twelve tags define roll vortices, convective cells, mixed rolls and convective cells, fronts, rain cells, cold pools and low winds. Examples are provided for each signature. The final dataset is comprised of 2100 Sentinel-1 wave mode SAR images acquired at 36 incidence angle over an 8°â€‰x 8° region centered at 51° W, 15° N. Each image is tagged with one or multiple phenomena by five experts. This strategy extends the TenGeoP-SARwv by identifying coexisting phenomena within a single SAR image and by the addition of mixed roll/cell states and cold pools. The dataset includes PNG-formatted SAR image files along with two text files containing the file name, the central latitude/longitude, expert tags for each image, and all dataset metadata. There is a high degree of consensus among expert tags. The dataset complements existing hand-labelled ocean SAR image datasets and offers the potential for new deep-learning SAR image classification model developments. Future use is also expected to yield new insights into the tradewind MABL processes such as structure transitions and their relation to the stratification.

Measuring boundary layer stratification, wind shear, and turbulence remains challenging for wind resource assessment. In particular, larger eddy scales have the greatest impact on turbine load fluctuations, and there are few in situ methods to observe them adequately. Satellite remote sensing using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is an alternative approach. In this study, eddy-related signatures in 704 high-resolution images are related to stratification through a bulk Richardson number (Ri) measured by a buoy near Martha's Vineyard, the US epicenter of offshore wind. Variations in SAR-observed atmospheric boundary layer eddies, or lack of them, correspond to specific Ri regimes. Accounting for strong vertical wind shear, typically under stable stratification, is critical for energy production and turbine loads, and SAR directly identifies these conditions by the absence of energetic eddies. SAR also provides a regional climatology of atmospheric stratification for offshore wind assessment, complementing other observations, and with potential application worldwide.

A three-state global estimator of marine surface layer atmospheric stratification is demonstrated using more than 600,000 Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar wave mode images at incidence angle ≈ 36.8°. Stratification is quantified using a bulk Richardson number, Ri, derived from collocated ERA5 surface analyses. The three stratification states are defined as unstable: Ri < –0.012, near-neutral: –0.012 < Ri < +0.001, and stable: Ri > +0.001. These boundaries are identified by the characteristic boundary layer coherent structures that form in these regimes and modulate the surface roughness imaged by the radar. An automated machine learning algorithm identifies the coherent structures impressed on the images. Data from 2016 to 2019 are used to examine spatial and temporal variation in these state estimates in terms of expected wind and thermal forcing. This new satellite-based approach for detecting air-sea stratification has implications for weather modeling and air-sea flux products.

Highlights
- First global statistics of SAR response to MABL rolls using new S-1 WV data.
- Data show 50% greater sensitivity to rolls for 36° vs. 23° SAR incidence angle.
- Crosswind (relative to SAR look direction) shows weakest sensitivity to roll imprints.
- Rolls observed at 23° and crosswind are more stationary, in more unstable conditions.
- SAR-estimated surface wind perturbations due to roll impacts are 8 ± 3.5%.

Highlights

• First deep learning model to classify ten geophysical phenomena from S-1 WV SAR data.
• Model performance is evaluated using an independent eye-selected dataset.
• Classified rain cells and sea ice are compared with other satellite measurements.
• The global S-1 SAR data show great potential for sea surface processes studies.

A method for capturing the different dynamical components of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is presented. The tropical wind field is partitioned into three components using free-space Green's functions: 1) a nondivergent component, 2) an irrotational component, and 3) a background or environmental flow that is interpreted as the influence on the tropical flow due to vorticity and divergence elements outside of the tropical region. The analyses performed in this study show that this background flow is partly determined by a train of extratropical waves. Space–time power spectra for each flow component are calculated. The strongest signal in the nondivergent wind spectrum corresponds to equatorial Rossby, mixed Rossby–gravity, and easterly waves. The strongest signal in the irrotational winds corresponds to Kelvin and inertia–gravity modes. The strongest signal in the power spectrum of the background flow corresponds to the wave band of extratropical Rossby waves. Furthermore, a coherence analysis reveals that the background flow has the highest coherence with geopotential height variations in the latitude bands from 30° to 45° in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

The flow partitions are further studied through a composite analysis based on the Wheeler–Hendon MJO index. Anomalies in the background flow are strongest in the western and central Pacific, possess an equivalent barotropic structure, and show an eastward propagation. By contrast, the irrotational and nondivergent winds possess a first-mode baroclinic structure. An oscillation in the zonally averaged background flow with the MJO phases is observed but contributes little to tropical angular momentum when compared to the nondivergent flow.

A combined analysis of ocean surface wind vector measurements by the European Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration QuikSCAT (QS) scatterometer using buoy measurements, numerical weather prediction model analyses, and spectral decomposition reveals significant statistical differences between the two data sets. While QS wind speeds agree better with buoy wind speeds than ASCAT above 15 m s^-1, ASCAT wind directions agree better with buoy directions overall than QS. In contrast, it is shown that sea-level pressure (SLP) fields derived from ASCAT and QS measurements compare better with each other than the winds in a statistical sense, even though ASCAT bulk pressure gradients (BPGs) are slightly weaker than buoy pressure gradients and have slightly lower spectral energy than QS. Weaker BPGs in ASCAT are consistent with the low bias in ASCAT wind speeds. Thus, it is proposed that scatterometer-derived SLP fields can be used as a filter to improve the wind directions. This improves the QS wind directions but has less effect on the more accurate ASCAT wind directions. The unfiltered ASCAT wind vector statistics compare well with the statistics of the direction-filtered QS winds. It is suggested that this methodology might provide a basis for minimizing the discrepancies between various satellite wind measurement data sets in view of producing a long-term record of satellite-derived SLP fields and ocean surface wind vectors.

A method for improving scatterometer wind retrievals based on the mesoscale and synoptic-scale structure of the flow field is presented and evaluated. The large-scale structure of the flow is inferred from the sea-level pressure (SLP) field derived from the scatterometer winds using a planetary boundary layer model. The wind vectors derived from this SLP field can be used to either (1) inform the ambiguity selection, (2) correct the direction of the scatterometer wind vectors, in all cases or above a certain threshold, or (3) replace the scatterometer winds. The methodology is demonstrated with QuikSCAT (QS) scatterometer wind vectors.

The new wind vector set is evaluated statistically by comparison with buoy measurements, with numerical weather prediction model analyses, and by spectral analysis. It is found that the new wind vectors are particularly valuable at nadir and in rain-contaminated areas, and that their spectral behavior is closer to a power law than are the uncorrected QS winds.

We present similarity solutions for the mean boundary-layer profiles under an axisymmetric vortex that is in gradient wind balance; the similarity model includes the nonlinear momentum advection and curvature terms. These solutions are a generalization of the Ekman layer mean flow, which is the canonical boundary-layer basic state under a uniform, geostrophically-balanced flow. Near-surface properties such as inflow angle, surface wind factor, diffusive transport of kinetic energy into the surface layer and dissipational heating are calculated and shown to be sensitive to the choice of turbulence parameterization.

During ONR's Shoaling Waves Experiment (SHOWEX) off the coast of North Carolina in November and December 1999, measurements of wind speed and direction as well as air and water temperatures were made using a variety of techniques. This paper shows a comparison of the measurements taken on December 3, 1999.